tipitaka network ... his life, his acts, his words                 sabbe satta bhavantu sukhi-tatta

An Elementary Paa.li Course

Lesson XXIV

Rules of Sandhi (Combinations)

By Sandhi¹ is meant the combination of two letters that come in immediate contact with each other.

This combination may take place by elision, substitution, augment, etc.

¹ Formed of sa.m, together, with dhaa, to join.

In Paa.li there are three classes of Sandhi, viz.:
1. Sara Sandhi - Vowel Combinations,
2. Vya~njana Sandhi - Consonant Combinations, and
3. Niggahita (.m) Sandhi - Niggahita Combinations.

1. Sara Sandhi - Vowel Combinations

1. When two vowels come together, the preceding vowel is often dropped.

loka - agga = lok'agga, chief of the world
pa~n~naa - indriya = pa~n~n'indriya, faculty of wisdom
tiini - imaani = tiin'imaani, these three
sabbo - eva = sabb'eva, verily all

2. Sometimes the following vowel is dropped, if it is preceded by a dissimilar vowel.

chaayaa - iva = chaayaa'va, like a shadow
iti - api = iti'pi, such indeed
paato - eva = paato'va, early morning

3. When the preceding dissimilar vowel is dropped, the following i and u short or long, are substituted by e and o respectively.

upa - eto = up'eto, constituted
suriya - udaya = suriy'udayu, suriyodaya, sunrise

4. When the preceding vowel is dropped, the following vowel is sometimes lengthened.

Buddha - anussati = Buddh'aanussati, reflection on the Buddha
gacchaami - iti = gacchaam'iiti, that I go
bahu - upakaaro = bahuupakaaro, very helpful
sace - aya.m = sacaaya.m, if this
idaani - aha.m = idaan'aaha.m, now I

5. Sometimes the preceding vowel is lengthened when the following vowel is dropped.

lokassa - iti = lokassaa'ti, thus to the world
vi - atikkama = vii'tikkama, transgression
saadhu - iti = saadhuu'ti, thus good
jiivitahetu - api = jiivitahetuu'pi, even for the sake of life

6. When te, me, ye are followed by a vowel, y is sometimes substituted for their final e.

me - aya.m = myaya.m, myaaya.m, this by me
te - aha.m = tyaha.m, tyaaha.m, I to thee
ye - assa = yyassa, yyaassa, those to him

7. When i, ii and u, o are followed by a dissimilar vowel², y and v are sometimes substituted for them respectively.

vi - aakato = vyaakato, proclaimed
su - aagata.m = svaagata.m, welcome
anu - eti = anveti, follows
ko - attho = kvattho, what good
so - aya.m = svaya.m, svaaya.m, he this

² For instance a and aa are similar vowels, a and i are dissimilar vowels.

8. "Ti" of ati, iti, and pati, when followed by a vowel, is sometimes changed into "cc".

ati - anta.m = accanta.m, exceedingly
ati - eti = acceti, surpasses
ati - odaato = accodaato, very white
iti - eta.m = icceta.m, thus that
pati - aaharati = paccaaharati, brings back

9. Abhi, followed by a vowel is sometimes changed into abbha.

abhi - uggato = ubbhuggato, arose

10. Adhi, followed by a vowel, is sometimes changed into ajjha.

adhi - aagama = ajjhaagama, attained

11. Sometimes t, d, n, m, y, r, .l, v are inserted before a vowel.

ajja - agge = ajjatagge, from today
atta - attha = attadattha, self-good
ito - aayati = itonaayati, comes from here
idha - aahu = idhamaahu, here they say
so - eva = soyeva, he himself
ni - antara.m = nirantara.m, without an interval, intermittent
cha - abhi~n~naa = cha.labhi~n~naa, six kinds of higher knowledge
ti - a.ngika.m = tiva.ngika.m, three factors

2. Vya~njana Sandhi - Consonant Combinations

1. The vowel preceding a consonant is sometimes lengthened.

te - assa = tyaassa, those to him
muni care = muniicare, the sage would wander
su - akkhaato = svaakkhaato, well-expounded
jaayati soko = jaayatiisoko, grief arises

2. Sometimes the vowel preceding a consonant is shortened.

yadi vaa saavake = yadivasaavake, or if towards the disciples
ta.nhaa - khayo = ta.nhakkhayo, destruction (of) craving

3. Before a consonant the final o of the pronominal stems eta and ta is changed into a.

eso dhammo = esa dhammo, that nature
so muni = sa muni, he (is) a sage

4. The consonant following a vowel is sometimes duplicated.

a - pamaado = appamaado, diligence
vi - ~naa.na.m = vi~n~naa.na.m, consciousness

5. When an aspirated consonant is duplicated, the preceding one is changed into the unaspirated form of the same consonant.

ni - bhaya.m = nibbhaya.m, fearless
sa - dhammo = saddhammo, noble Doctrine

3. Niggahita (.m) Sandhi - Niggahita Combinations

1. The Niggahita preceding a group consonant is changed into the nasal of that particular group.

ta.m kha.na.m = ta`nkha.na.m, that instant
sa.m jaata = sa~njaata, born
ta.m ~naa.na.m = ta~n~naa.na.m, that knowledge
ta.m .thaana.m = ta.n.thaana.m, that place
aha.m te = ahante, I to thee
sa.m nipaato = sannipaato, union
sa.m bodhi = sambodhi, enlightenment
sa.m maana = sammaana, honour

2. The Niggahita preceding e and h is changed into ~n. Before e the substituted ~n is duplicated.

ta.m - eva = ta~n~neva, itself
ta.m - hi = ta~nhi, it indeed

3. The Niggahita preceding y is sometimes changed into ~n, y is afterwards dropped, and the substituted ~n is duplicated.

sa.m - yamo = sa~n~namo, restraint

4. The Niggahita, followed by a vowel, is sometimes changed into m, and into d if it is affixed to ta and eta.

ta.m - aha.m = tamaha.m, that I
eta.m - avoca = etadavoca, this he said

5. Sometimes the Niggahita preceding a vowel is dropped. The initial vowel of the following word not followed by a double consonant, is lengthened, and the final vowel of the preceding word is dropped.

adaasi.m aha.m, adaasi - aha.m, adaa's - aha.m, adaas'aaha.m, I gave
eva.m aha.m, eva - aha.m, ev'aha.m, ev'aaha.m, thus I

6. Sometimes the Niggahita preceding a consonant is also dropped.

Buddhaana.m - saasana.m = Buddhaanasaasana.m, message of the Buddhas

7. Sometimes a Niggahita is inserted before a vowel or a consonant.

cakkhu udapaadi = cakkhu.m udapaadi, the eye arose
ava - siro = ava.msiro, head downwards

8. Sometimes the vowel following a Niggahita is dropped, and the Niggahita is afterwards nasalised.

ida.m api = idam'pi, this too
ki.m iti = kin'ti, what is
cakka.m iva = cakka.m'va, like a wheel