A Practical Grammar of the Paali Language

Chapter X

Verbs

354. Conjugation, or the inflection of verbs, consists in making the verbal root undergo certain changes in form, by the addition to it of certain prefixes and terminations to show the difference of voice, of tense, of mode, of person, and of number.

355. There are two voices:

1. The Active, called in Paali: parassapada (lit. a word for another) and
2. The Reflective in Paali called attanopada (lit. a word for one's self).

356. The active voice, or parassapada may be said to be used, when the fruit or consequence of the action; expressed by the verb passes on to another person or thing other than the subject or agent; the reflective voice or attanopada, is used when the fruit or the consequence expressed by the verb accrues to no one else but to the the agent. The reflective voice merely implies that the agent has the ability to do that action or suffer that state which is denoted by the root.

357. It must here be remarked that the reflective voice has lost very much of its importance, and that the distinction between active and reflective has been almost if not altogether effaced, and that the choice between the active or reflective is mostly determined now by metrical exigencies. It therefore follows the reflective voice or the "Middle Voice," as it is also called, is confined to poetry, and is but rarely found in prose.

358. There are six tenses:

1. The Present; and its preterite.
2. The Imperfect; used originally to express a definite past.
3. The Aorist, expressing time recently past. This is now the only true past tense in Paali, and is very extensively used.
4. The Perfect, originally an indefinite past. This tense is of very rare occurrence.
5. The Future, expressing future time in general and its preterite.
6. The Conditional, expressing future time relatively to something that is past, and an action unable to be performed on account of some difficulty in the way of its execution.

359. There are three modes of the present tense:

1. The Indicative.
2. The Imperative.
3. The Optative.

360. The present, the perfect and the future tenses, have each a Participle, called after them:

1. The Present Participle.
2. The Perfect Participle.
3. The Future Participle.

361. There is also a Participle of Necessity, also called Future Passive Participle and Potential Participle, which is but a verbal adjective.

362. According to the base on which they are formed the present and the future participles may be active or passive in sense.

363. There are two verbal nouns:

1. The Infinitive, in the Accusative case-form; sometimes (rarely), in the Dative case-form; which has nothing to do with the conjugation and the tense systems; and has the sense of a regular infinitive.
2. A Gerund so-called, which is but the case-form of a derivative noun having the force of an absolute participle.

364. There are two numbers: the Singular and the Plural.

365. There are three persons: the First, Second and Third Persons.

366. From what has been said above, it will be seen that the tenses group themselves into four well defined classes or systems.

(1) The Present System, composed of:

1. The Present Indicative, and its preterite.
2. The Imperfect.
3. The Present Imperative.
4. The Present Optative.
5. The Present Participle.

(2) The Aorist System, composed of:

1. The Aorist Tense only.

(3) The Perfect System, comprising:

1. The Perfect Tense.
2. The Perfect Participle.

(4) The Future System composed of:

1. The Future Tense.
2. The Conditional.
3. The Future Participle.

367. There is a division of the tenses, more fictitious than real, into "Special Tenses" and "General Tenses". From such a division, one would be inclined to think that the former are formed on a special base or modified form of the root, and the latter, therefore, from the root itself. But such in fact is not the case, for it will later on be remarked that the special and the general tenses not seldom interchange their bases.

368. As, however the Present System is by far the most important, and as it is made the basis of the different conjugations or classifications of verbs, we will in the next section explain the formation of the several stems or bases of the Present System (otherwise called "Special Tenses") of which there are ten, divided into seven conjugations. These bases are in consequence called "Special Bases".

369. The conjugation of verbs is furthermore divided into Primitive and Derivative Conjugations.

(A) Primitive Verbs

Formation of the Special Bases of the Present System

Conjugation

370. The verbs of the First Conjugation form the Present stem or base in four ways, as follows:

(1) The roots end in a consonant, and, to form the base or stem, simply add a.

Examples

Roots	Bases
√pac, to cook	paca
√labh, to obtain	labha
√mar, to die	mara
√rakkh, to keep, guard	rakkha
√yaac, to entreat, beg	yaaca
√vad, to tell, say	vada
√tar, to cross	tara
√jiiv, to live	jiiva
√bhar, to carry	bhara

371. To this division belong those roots which, ending in a consonant preceded by i or u, sometimes do, and sometimes do not strengthen the vowel (i, u).

Examples

(Without Strengthening)

Roots	Bases
√tud, to know, destroy	tuda
√phus, to touch	phusa
√likh, to write	likha
√nud, to remove	nuda

(With Strengthening)

Roots	Bases
√gup, to keep, watch	gopa
√subh, to shine, be beautiful	sobha

(2) The roots of this division do not take the conjugation sign a: the personal endings of the tenses are added directly to the root.

Examples

Roots	Bases
√yaa, to go	yaa
√vaa, to blow	vaa
√.thaa, to stand	.thaa
√khyaa, to tell (with prefix aa)	khyaa
√bruu, to speak	bruu

Roots	Bases
√nii, to lead	ne (or naya) (3rd Division)
√ji, to conquer	je (or java) (3rd Division)
√huu, to be	ho
√ku, to sound	ko (or kava) (3rd Division)

(3) The roots of this division end in i, ii or u, uu which, before the conjugational sign a, are respectively changed to ay and av (103-110).

Examples

Roots	Bases
√nii, to lead, guide	(√nii + a =) naya
√ji, to conquer	(√ji + a =) jaya
√bhuu, to be	(√bhuu + a =) bhava
√ku, to make a sound	(√ku + a =) kava
√khi, to govern	(√khi + a =) khaya

(See above no. 2 Remarks (a, c)).

(4) The verbs of the Fourth Division of the First Cojugation form their special bases by reduplicating the root.

Examples

Roots	Bases
√.thaa, to stand	ti.t.thaa
√daa, to give	dadaa
√dhaa, to hold	dadhaa
√ha, to forsake	jahaa
√hu, to sacrifice	juho

372. The rules of reduplication are as follows:

1. Reduplication consists in the doubling of the first consonant in a root together with a vowel that follows it. If the root begins with a vowel, that vowel alone is reduplicated.
2. A gutteral is reduplicated by its corresponding palatal.
3. An unaspirate is always reduplicated by an unaspirate (See chart para 9) which means that an unaspirate is reduplicated by itself.
4. The initial h of a root, is reduplicated by j.
5. An aspirate is reduplicated by its unaspirate.
6. v is generally reduplicated by u.
7. A long vowel is shortened in the reduplicated syllable. That is:
1. a or aa takes a in reduplication, and sometimes:
2. i or ii takes i.
3. u or uu takes u but sometimes a.
4. i is occasionally changed to e.
5. u is changed to o, sometimes.
6. a of the root, following the first consonant, is sometimes lengthened to aa.

Examples

Simple roots	Reduplicated bases
√dhaa, to hold (Rule 372, 5, 7-a)	dadhaa
√daa, to give (Rule 372, 3, 7-a)	dadaa
√kit, to cure (Rule 372, 2, 7-b; 88)	cikiccha
√gam, to go (Rule 372, 2, 7-a)	jagama
√kha`n, to dig (Rule 372, 2, 7-a)	cakhana
√har, to bear (Rule 372, 4, 7-a, f)	jahaara
√has, to laugh (Rule 372, 4, 7-a, f)	jahaasa
√budh, to know (Rule 372, 3, 7-e)	bubodha
√suc, to mourn (Rule 372, 3, 7-e)	susoca
√pac, to cook (Rule 372, 3, 7-a)	papaca
√chid, to cut (Rule 372, 5, 7-d)	cicheda
√bhuu, to be (Rule 372, 5, 7-c)	babhuva
√vas, to live (Rule 372, 6, 7-f)	uvaasa
√vad, to say (Rule 372, 6, 7-f)	uvaada
√ah, to say (Rule 372, 1; 22)	aaha

373. The verbs of the Second Conjugation form their special bases by inserting niggahiita before the last consonant of the root, and then adding a, as in the First Conjugation. Niggahita follows the usual rules of sandhi (39).

Examples

Roots	Bases
√rudh, to restrain	rundha
√muc, to free	mu~nca
√chid, to cut	chinda
√lip, to smear	limpa
√bhuj, to eat	bhu~nja
√pis, to grind	pimsa

374. The sign of the Third Conjugation is ya, which is added to the root; the rules for the assimilation of ya (70 ff.), are regularly applied.

Examples

Roots		Bases
√yudh, to fight	√yudh + ya (74, vi)	= yujjha
√budh, to know	√budh + ya (74, vi)	= bujjha
√pas, to see	√pas + ya (76, i)	= passa
√dus, to vex	√dus + ya (76, i)	= dussa
√gaa, to sing	√gaa + ya	= gaaya
√jhaa, to think	√jhaa + ya	= jhaaya

375. The forms in aa (gaa, etc.) belong, as we have already seen, to the Third Conjugation, but those in e belong to the First Conjugation (3rd Division), and form their bases by the addition of a. Thus:
ge + a = gaaya.
ve + a = vaaya.

376. The verbs of the Fourth Conjugation form the Present stem or base by the addition of .nu, or .na if the root end in a vowel; but u.nu, or u.naa, if the root end in a consonant.

Examples

Roots	Bases
√su, to hear.	su.naa or su.no.
√aap (with prefix pa = paap) to attain.	paapu.naa or paapu.no.

377. Verbs of the Fifth Conjugation form their bases by adding naa to the root, which as a rule ends in a vowel.

Examples

Roots	Bases
√ci, to heap, collect.	cinaa.
√kii, to buy, barter. (Sansk. krii)	kii.naa, or ki.naa.
√dhuu, to shake.	dhunaa.
√ji, to conquer, win.	jinaa.
√as, to eat.	asnaa.
√jaa, to know.	jaanaa.
√yu, to mix, associate.	yunaa.

378. The verbs of the Sixth Conjugation form their special bases by adding u to the root; this u generally strengthens to o, which before an ending beginning with a vowel is changed to va (27).

Examples

Roots	Bases
√kar, to do, make.	karo.
√tan, to stretch, expand.	tano.
√ku.n, to make a sound.	ku.no.
√van, to beg, ask for.	vano.

379. The verbs of the Seventh Conjugation form their special bases by adding to the root aya, which by contraction may be replaced by e. The forms in e are more commonly met than those in aya. (Compare: 1st Conjugation, 3rd Division).

Examples

Root	Base
√cur, to steal.	core or coraya.
√gup, to guard, shine.	gope or gopaya.
√pus, to nourish.	pose or posaya.
√bandh, to bind.	bandhe or bandhaya.
√tiir, to finish, accomplish.	tire or tiiraya.
√cha.d.d, to throw away.	cha.d.de or cha.d.daya.
√kath, to say.	kathe or kathaya.

380. A great many roots can form their bases according to two or three or even most conjugations, in which case the meaning of each special base from the same root, differs, in most instances, from the original meaning of the root itself. This will be better understood by several examples. The numbers after the bases refer to the conjugations.

Examples

Roots		Bases
subh	sobha (1), to shine.	√subh + a = sobha.
subh	sumbha (2), strike.	√subh + .m + a = sumbha.
kus	kosa (1), to call, cut.	√kus + a = kosa.
kus	kussa (3), to embrace.	√kus + ya, kusya = kussa (76).
tik	teka (1), to go.	√tik + a = teka.
tik	tiku`naa (4), to oppress.	√tik + u`naa = tiku`naa.
rii	re (1), to expand.	√rii + a = re.
rii	rii.naa (5), to inform.	√rii + .naa = rii.naa.
lii	laya (1) to liquify.	√lii + a = laya.
lii	liinaa (5), to approach.	√lii + naa = liinaa.
tan	tana (1), to aid, assist.	√tan + a = tana.
tan	tano (6), to expand, stretch.	√tan + u (=o) = tano.
va.d.dh	va.d.dha (1), to grow, increase.	√va.d.dh + a = va.d.dha.
va.d.dh	va.d.dhe (7), to pour from one vessel into another.	√va.d.dh + e = va.d.dhe.
vid	vida (1), to know.	√vid + a = vida.
vid	vijja (3), to be, have.	√vid + ya = vidya = vijja.
vid	vind (2), to find, get, enjoy.	√vid + .m + a = vinda.
vid	vede, vedaya (7), to feel, speak.	√vid + e = vede or vedaya.

Conjugation of the Present System

First Conjugation

381. The bases of the verbs having been formed according to the rules given in the preceding paragraphs, there only remains to add to them the appropriate Personal Endings. We now give the Personal Endings for the tense of the Present-System, which is by far the most important, omitting the Present Participle, which will be treated in a special chapter.

382. As has been said above (370) the first conjugation has four divisions. The roots ending in a consonant and adding a to form the base, are extremely numerous.

383. The following is the paradigm of √pac, to cook.

384. The above personal-endings of the special tenses are affixed to the special base of the seven conjugations, after the model of √pac.

385. Roots of the 1st conjugation in i, ii and u, uu, require no explanations. The base being obtained, (371, 3) the above endings are merely added to it.

Examples

386. The roots of the first conjugation which take the personal endings directly (371, 2) are not numerous.

387. It must be here noted that in Paali, all the roots are not conjugated in the Active and the Reflective voices for all the tenses. Especially so is the case with the roots that take the personal endings directly.

Examples

	√yaa, to go		√vaa, to blow		√bhaa, to shine
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	yaami	yaama	vaami	vaama	bhaami	bhaama
2.	yaasi	yaatha	vaasi	vaatha	bhaasi	bhaatha
3.	yaati	yanti	vaati	vanti	bhaati	bhanti

388. In the Optative, a y is inserted before the personal endings: yaayeyyaami, yaapeyya, vaayeyya, vaaye, etc.

389. Some roots of this class are gu.nated (110) generally in the reflective and 3rd plural Present active: √bruu, to speak.

	Active		Reflective
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	bruumi	bruuma	brave	bruumhe
2.	bruusi	bruutha	bruuse	bruuvhe
3.	bruuti	bravanti	brute	bravante

390. Other roots of this conjugation are:

• √han, to strike, kill, 3rd singular = hanti. but 3rd plural = hananti. In the Aorist we have: ahani, hani, etc.
• √i to go, strengthened to e; the weak base ya is also used (cf. 1st conjugation 3rd division, such roots as √nii, strong base ne and weak base naya. Similarly: √ji, strong base je and weak base jaya.). We therefore obtain:
  1. emiema
  2. esietha
  3. etienti and yanti
• √.tha, to stand, .thaati, .thaasi, etc.
• √paa, to guard, protect, paati, paasi, etc.

391. Similarly, √dhaa, which at first sight would appear to belong to the 1st conjugation, 2nd division, de-aspirates itself into daha, and migrates into the √pac class (370, 1). Moreover it is used only with verbal prefixes. This root also belongs to the reduplicating-class (372) and consequently has also the base dadhaa. A base dhe, of the same root, is extensively used.

Examples

• √dhaa to carry, bear, hold + ni = nidahati, or nidadhaati, or nidheti, to put down, hold aside, lay aside.
• √dhaa + abhi = abhidahati, or abhidadhaati, or abhidheti, to declare, point out.

392. Some roots belonging to the reduplicating class (371, 4th Division), also take the personal endings directly in the Present tense and the lmperative.*

393. By false analogy, some roots in i, (371, 3rd division), seem to belong to the class of roots which take the endings directly; but in reality, these roots belong not to the 2nd division, but to the 3rd division, the endings being added, not after the root, but after the strengthened base (105), i or ii having first been changed to e under the influence of a (21, i). Those bases are conjugated exactly like √cur, base core, the paradigm of which is given below. The reflective voice of such roots is formed from the base in aya.

Examples

394. Other roots are:

• √sii, to lie down, base: se or saya.
• √ji, to conquer, base: je or jaya.
• √.di, to set a net, base: .de (in o.d.deti).

Reduplicating Class

395. The verbs of this class are characterised by taking a reduplicating syllable: the rules have been given above (372). The conjugation presents no difficulty, e.g. √daa, to give.

396. Some tenses of this verb are formed directly from the base; they will be given in their proper place.

The 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th Conjugations

397. The conjugation of the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th classes does not present any difficulty; the personal endings are added as has already been shown for the first conjugation.

Second Conjugation

398. √chid, base: chinda (373), to cut.

399. The other tenses are formed regularly, as: chindeyyaami, chindeyyaasi, chindeyya, or chinde; chindeyyaama, chindaayyatha, chindeyyu.m. And so on for the other tenses.

Third Conjugation

400. √div, base: dibba (77), to play.

The other tenses are formed regularly, as:
Imperfect: adibba, adibbo, adibba, adibbamhaa, adibbattha, adibbu.
Optative: dibbe, dibbeyya, dibbeyyaami, dibbeyyaasi, etc.

Fourth Conjugation

401. √su, base: su.naa (376), or suno, to hear.

Fifth Conjugution

402. √dhuu, to shake; base: dhunaa (377).

Sixth Conjugation

403. √kar, to make, to do; base: karo (378).

Seventh Conjugation

404. The roots of the 7th conugation, as has been remarked above (379), have two bases: one in e and one in aya, which are conjugated exactly like the roots of the 1st conjugation, 3rd class, (see 393).

Irregular Bases

Some roots form their special bases according to none of the above given rules; and they are in consequence called irregular. The principal are here given.

√gam, to goSpecial base gaccha.
√yam, to restrainSpecial base yaccha.
√guh, to hideSpecial base guuhe.
√dhaa, to holdSpecial base daha, dhe (391).
√daa, to giveSpecial base dajja.
√jaa, √jan, to be bornSpecial base jaaya.
√paa, to drinkSpecial base piva.
√.da.ms, to biteSpecial base .dasa.
√dhmaa, to blowSpecial base dhama.
√vyadh, (=vadh)Special base vadha.
√sad, to sitSpecial base siida.
√.thaa, to standSpecial base ti.t.thaa.
√is, to wishSpecial base iccha.
√vad, to speak, saySpecial base vajja, vajje, vada, vaade.
√mar, to dieSpecial base miya, miyya, mara.
√gah to take, seizeSpecial base gheppa.*
√gam, to goSpecial base ghamma, gaggha.*
√jir, to gow old, decaySpecial base jiya, jiyya.
√dis, das to seeSpecial base dakkha, daccha.*

The Aorist

405. The Aorist is the only true past tense in Paali. The personal endings of the Imperfect and those of the Aorist have become hopelessly mixed up and the native grammarians are at a loss to differentiate between the Imperfect and the Aorist; but the Aorist has generally superseded the Imperfect. There are many anomalies which the student cannot possibly understand without a slight knowedge of Sanskrit grammar; he need not however, be detained by these considerations just now. The usual endings of the Imperfect have already been given (381); much will be achieved if he, for the present, devotes his attention to the following paragraphs.

406. The Aorist is supposed to be formed from the root but as a matter of fact, it is formed indifferently either from the root or from the base.

407. The desinences (endings) of the Aorist are:

408. The Aorist may be divided into three types:

1. Radical Aorist
2. Stem or Base Aorist
3. Sigmatic Aorist

(i) The Radical Aorist

409. This Aorist is not very common. We will give a few examples. Let it be first remarked that the Aorist may also take the augment a before it, as does the imperfect.

410. From √gam, and √gaa and √guu (subsidiary forms of √gam, to go), we have:

(a)

	Singular	Plural
1.	aga.m, agamaa, agami.m	agumha
2.	agaa, agamaa	aguttha
3.	agaa, agami	agu.m, agami.msu

(b) √as, to be (with augment a)

	Singular	Plural
1.	aasi.m	aasimha
2.	aasi	aasittha
3.	aasi	aasu.m, aasi.msu

411. √.thaa.

	Singular	Plural
1.	a.t.tha.m	a.t.thamha
2.	a.t.tho	a.t.thattha
3.	a.t.tha	a.t.tha.msu, a.t.thu.m

412. From √kar we find: aka.m (1st singular), no doubt formed on the analogy of: akaa (1st, 2nd and 3rd singular); akaa being itself from the Vedic form: akar, the loss of the r is compensated by the lengthening of the final a.

In the 1st singular we also have: akara.m, akari.m.

In the plural: 2. akattha; 3. akaru.m, akaruu, akari.msu.

413. √huu (a form of √bhuu) to be.

3rd singular: ahuu, ahu, and before a vowel, ahud.

1st plural: ahumhaa; 3rd plural: ahu.m.

414. √da.

1st singular: adaa, which is also 2nd and 3rd singular.

In the plural we find: 3rd adu.m, ada.msu, adaasu.m.

415. The augment a is not inseparable from the Aorist, so that we meet with such forms as: gaa=agaa, etc.

(ii) Stem Aorist

416. As has already been said, this aorist is formed on the stem or base, not on the root. The augment may or may not be retained.

√paa, base: piva, to drink.

	Singular	Plural
1.	pivi.m	pivimha
2.	pivi	pivittha
3.	pivi	pivi.msu

For the Reflective

	Singular	Plural
1.	pive	pivimhe
2.	pivise	pivivha.m
3.	piva, pivaa	pivu, pivu.m, pivi.msu, pivisu.m

417. The great bulk of primitive verbs (369) form their Aorist according to the above (piva); it is therefore extremely common, both with and without the augment; let it be stated once for all that this augment is of much more frequent occurence in prose than in poetry; in the latter its retention or rejection is regulated by metrical exigencies. We will now give a few more examples:

√bhuj, to eat; base: bhu~nja

	Singular	Plural
1.	bhu~nji.m	bhu~nijimha, bhu~njimhaa
2.	bhu~nji	bhu~njittha
3.	bhu~nji	bhu~njimsu

√gam, to go; base: gaccha

	Singular	Plural
1.	gacchi.m	gacchimha, gacchimhaa
2.	gacchi	gacchittha
3.	gacchi, ga~nchi	gacchi.msu

(iii) Sigmatic Aorist

418. Sigmatic Aorist is formed by inserting s between the radical vowel or the vowel of the base and the personal endings given above (407, b).

419. So that we obtain the following desinences:

420. As will be readily understood, this formation of the Aorist is used with roots ending in vowels, and the s is inserted to join the endings to the root or to the base. It will be seen lower down, however, that they are added also to some roots ending in a consonant when the s becomes assimilated to that consonant.

421. The sigmatic desinences are used mostly with the Derivative verbs, principally the Causative verbs (See: Derivative Conjugation), which end in the vowel e. The verbs of the 7th conjugation, which also end in e, form their Aorist in the same way.

Examples

(Causative Verbs)

422. √haa, to abandon; Causative base: haape.

	Singular	Plural
1.	haapesi.m	haapesimha
2.	haapesi	haapesittha
3.	haapesi	haapesu.m

√tas, to tremble; Causative base: taase.

	Singular	Plural
1.	taasesi.m	taasesimha
2.	taasesi	taasesittha
3.	taasesi	taasesu.m

423. √cur, to steal; base: core.

	Singular	Plural
1.	coresi.m	coresimha
2.	coresi	coresittha
3.	coresi	coresu.m, coresi.msu

√kath, to tell; base: kathe.

	Singular	Plural
1.	kathesi.m	kathesimha
2.	kathesi	kathesittha
3.	kathesi	kathesu.m, kathesi.msu

424. The sigmatic Aorist desinences are placed after some roots which do not belong to the 7th conjugation or to the derivative verbs:

1. After roots ending in a vowel, with or without the augment a.
2. After some roots ending in a consonant, in which case the usual rules of assimilation (85) are strictly applied.

Examples of (i)

• √daa, to give: adaasi.m, adaasi, adaasimha, etc.
• √.tha, to stand: a.t.thaasi.m, a.t.thaasimha, etc.
• √haa, to abandon: ahaasi.m, ahaasi, ahaasimha, etc.
• √su, to hear, assosi.m, assosi, assosimha, etc.
• √yaa, to go: yaasim, yaasi, yaasimha, etc.

Examples of (ii)

425. At a first reading, the student had perhaps better leave unnoticed the few references to Sanskrit grammar which will be found in the next few paragrahs. Let him merely assume the forms as they are given: the more advanced student ought, of course, to read them with attention.

426. The s (initial) of Sigmatic desinences, as above given (419), assimilates itself to the last consonant of the root according to the usual rules of assimilation:

1. From √dis=(Sanskrit)√dṛï, we find addakki=(Sanskrit)adrak-ṣ-is. The following forms are also found: addakkhii, adakkhi, dakkhi.
2. From √sak, to be able=(Sans)√ïak, we have sakkhi, asakkhi; Sanskrit=ïak-ṣ-is.
3. √kus, to revile=(Sanskrit)√kruï, gives akkocchi, but akkosi, without the sigmatic s, is also met with.
4. √bha~nj, to break, gives Aorist bha`nki.

System of the Perfect

427. As has been seen, the Perfect system consists of the Perfect tense and the Perfect participle. The participle will be treated of in the chapter on Participles.

428. The Perfect is characterised by the reduplication of the root. The rules have already been given (372) and should now be read over carefully.

429. The endings are:

430. √pac; Perfect base: papac.

Active

	Singular	Plural
1.	papaca	papacimha
2.	papace	papacittha
3.	papaca	papacu

Reflective

	Singular	Plural
1.	papaci	papacimhe
2.	papacittho	papacivho
3.	papacittha	papacire

√bhuu; Perfect base: babhuuv.

Active

	Singular	Plural
1.	babhuuva	babhuuvimha
2.	babhuuve	babhuuvittha
3.	babhuuva	babhuuvu

Reflective

	Singular	Plural
1.	babhuuvi	babhuuvimhe
2.	babhuuvittho	babhuuvivhe
3.	babhuuvittha	babhuuvire

The Future System

431. This system includes the Future, the Conditional and the Future participle. The participle will be considered in a special chapter.

432. The Future system has for special characteristic the sign: ssa inserted between the root and the personal endings.

433. The personal endings for the Future are:

Examples

434. (i) without connecting vowel i.

(a) √i, to go; special base: e (390); future base: essa.

	Active		Reflective
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	essaami	essaama	essa.m	essaamhe
2.	essasi	essatha	essase	essavhe
3.	essati	essanti	essate	essante

√nii to lead; special base: ne (371, 3); future base: nessa.

Singular	Plural
nessaami	nessaama
nessasi	nessatha
nessati	nessanti, ...etc.

(b) √.thaa, to stand.

Singular	Plural
.thassaami	.thassaama
.thassasi	.thassatha
.thassati	.thassanti, ...etc.

Again: √daa, to give.

Singular	Plural
dassaami	dassaama
dassasi	dassatha
dassati	dassanti, ...etc.

(ii) with connecting vowel i.

(c) √bhuu, to be; special base: bhava; future base: bhavissa.

	Active		Reflective
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	bhavissaami	bhavisssaama	bhavissa.m	bhavissaamhe
2.	bhavissasi	bhavissatha	bhavissase	bhavissavhe
3.	bhavissati	bhavissanti	bhavissate	bhavisante

(iii) with assimilation of ssa

(d) √bhuj, to eat, gives bhokkha as future base. (Sanskrit √bhuj = bhok + ṣya = bhokṣya) and we have: bhokkhati, bhokkhate, bhokkha.m, etc.

√chid. to cut, gives: checcha (Sanskrit √chid = chet + ṣya = cetṣya) then: checchaami, checchasi, checchati, etc.

√dis, to see, gives a Future: dakkha (Sanskrit √dṛc = drak + ṣya = drakṣya) from this we find - dakkhati, but more frequently dakkhiti. Similarly from the root √sak, to be able, is obtained sakkhiti.

435. A double Future is also found formed from bases like bhokkha, dakka, which, as has been just now explained are already Future, by adding to them ssa with the connection vowel -i.

Example

√sak; future base: sakkha; sakkhissaami, sakkhissasi, sakkhissati, sakkhissaama, etc.

436. From hoti, the contracted form of bhavati, to be, we find the following numerous forms for the Future:

Singular

1. hemi, hehaami, hohaami, hessaami, hehissaami, hohissaami. I shall be.
2. hesi. hehisi, hohisi, hessasi, hehissasi, hohissasi. Thou will be.
3. heti, hehiti, hohiti, hessati, hehissati, hohissati. He will be.

Plural

1. hema, hehaama, hohaama, hessaama, hehissaama, hohissaama. We shall be.
2. hetha, hehitha, hohitha, hessatha, hehissatha, hohissatha. You will be.
3. henti, hehinti, hohinti, hessanti; hehissanti hohissanti. They will be.

√kar, to do, gives:

	Singular	Plural
1.	kaahaami. I shall do.	kaahaama. We shall do.
2.	kaahasi, kaahisi. Thou wilt do.	kaahatha. You will do.
3.	kaahati, kaahiti. He will do.	kaahanti, kaahinti. They will do.

The Conditional

437. The Conditional takes the augment a before the root.

438. The personal endings are as follows:

√pac, to cook:

	Active		Reflective
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	apacissa.m	apacissamhaa	apacissa.m	apacissaamhase
2.	apacisse, apacissa, apacissi	apacissatha	apacissase	apacissavhe
3.	apacissaa, apacissa, apacissati	apacissa.msu	apacissatha	apacissi.msu

The Participles

Present Participle Active

439. All participles are of the nature of verbal adjectives, and must agree with their nouns, in number, gender and case.

440. The terminations of the present participle active are: nta, a.m or .m; nta and .m are added to the base, a.m is added to the root.

Examples

Root	Base	Present Participle Active Base
√pac, to cook	paca	paca.m, pacanta	cooking
√kar, to do	kara	kara.m, karonta	doing
√chid, to cut	chinda	chinda.m, chindanta	cutting
√bha.n, to say	bha.na	bha.na.m, bha.nanta	saying
√bhuu, to be	bhava	bhava.m, bhavanta	being
√paa, to drink	piva	piva.m, pivanta	drinking

441. Verbal bases ending in e (1st Conj. 3rd Division; 7th Conj. and causal bases. See "Derivative or secondary conjugation") which have also another base in aya take only the termination nta after the base in e, and both nta and .m after the base in aya.

Examples

1st and 7th Conjugations

Root	Base	Present Participle Active Base
√cur, to steal	core, coraya	corenta, coraya.m, corayanta
√kath, to tell	kathe, kathaya	kathenta, kathaya.m, kathayanta
√nii, to lead	ne, naya	nenta, naya.m, nayanta
√ji, to conquer	je, jaya	jenta, jaya.m, jayanta

Causative

Root	Causal Base	Present Participle Active Base
√dhar to hold	dhaare, dhaaraya	dhaarenta, dhaaraya.m, dhaarayanta
	dhaaraape, dhaaraapaya	dhaaraapenta, dhaaraaya.m, dhaaraapayanta
√mar, to die	maare, maaraya	maarenta, maaraya.m, maarayanta
	maaraape, maaraapaya	maaraapenta, maaraapaya.m, maaraapayanta
√chid, to cut	chede, chedaya	chedenta, chedaya.m, chedayanta
	chedaape, chedaapaya	chedaapenta, chedaapaya.m, chedaapayanta

442. Bases in .naa, no, u.naa, u.no (4th Conj.) and naa (5th Conj.) generally take the termination nta.

Examples

Root	Base	Present Participle Active Base
√su, to hear	su.naa, su.no	su.nanta, su.nonta
√kii, to buy	ki.naa	ki.nanta

443. The stem or base of this Present Participle is in at, or ant as:

Root	Present Participle Stem Nom.	Singular Masculine
√pac	pacat, pacant	paca.m, pacanto
√car	carat, carant	cara.m, caranto
√bha.n	bha.nat, bha.nant	bha.na.m, bha.nanto

444. The feminine is formed by adding ii to the stems or bases in at and nta.

445. The neuter is in .m like the masculine.

Examples

Root	Stem	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
√pac	pacat	paca.m	pacatii	paca.m
	pacant	pacanto	pacantii	pacanta.m
√chid	chindat	chinda.m	chindatii	chinda.m
	chindant	chindanto	chindantii	chindanta.m

446. These participles are declined like mahaa (226) in the masculine, feminine and neuter.

The Present Participle may often be translated by "when ..., while ..." etc.

Reflective Participle

447. The Reflective Participle is formed by the addition of maana to the base. It is declined like purisa, ka~n~naa, and ruupa.m.

Examples

Reflective Participle

Root	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
√pac	pacamaano	pacamaanaa	pacamaana.m
√car	caramaano	caramaanaa	caramaana.m
√daa	dadaamaano	dadaamaanaa	dadaamaana.m
√su	su.namaano	su.namaanaa	su.namaana.m

448. Another Reflective Participle, much less frequent than the above, is formed by adding aana to the root. It is declined like that in maana.

Examples

Reflective Participle

Root	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
√pac	pacaano	pacaanaa	pacaana.m
√car	caraano	caraanaa	caraana.m
√daa	dadaano	dadaanaa	dadaana.m

The Future Participle

449. The Future Participle is either active or reflective.

1. In the active, it takes the endings of the Present Participle active, nta, .m (or a.m), and is declined like mahaa.
2. In the reflective, the endings are maana and aana, and it is declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m.
3. All these endings are added to the future base.

Examples

(i) Future Participle Active

Root	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
√pac	pacissa.m	pacissatii	pacissa.m
	pacissanto	pacissantii	pacissanta.m
√car	carissa.m	carissatii	carissa.m
	carissanto	carissantii	carissanta.m
√su	su.nissa.m	su.nissatii	su.nissa.m
	su.nissanto	su.nissantii	su.nissanta.m

(ii) Future Participle Reflective

Root	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter
√pac	pacissamaano	pacissamaa.na	pacissamaana.m
	pacissaano	pacissaanaa	pacissaana.m
√car	carissamaano	carissamaanaa	carissamaana.m
	carissaano	carissaanaa	carissaana.m
√su	su.nissamaano	su.nissamaanaa	su.nissamaana.m
	su.nissaano	su.nissaanaa	su.nissaana.m

The Passive Perfect Participle

450. This participle is very widely used. It is formed from the root by affixing to it the suffix ta or the suffix na.

451. ta is affixed in several ways:

1. If the root ends in a vowel, it is added directly without any change taking place in the root.
2. When the root ends in a consonant, ta may be joined to it by means of connecting vowel i.
3. When the root ends in a consonant, ta may become assimilated to it according to the usual rules.

Examples

452. (i) Roots ending in a vowel

Root	Present	Passive Perfect Participle
√nahaa, to bathe	nahaayati, he bathes	nahaata, bathed
√buu, to be, become	bhavati, he is, becomes	bhuuta, been, become
√nii, to lead	neti, nayati, he leads	niita, led
√ji, to conquer	jeti, jayati, he conquers	jita, conquered
√ci, to collect	cinaati, he collects	cita, collected
√bhii, to be afraid	bhaayati, he is afraid	bhiita, afraid, frightened
√yaa, to go, undergo	yaati, he goes	yaata, gone, undergone
√~naa, to know	jaanaati, he knows	~naata, known

(ii) Roots ending in a consonant and taking vowel i before ta

Root	Present	Passive Perfect Participle
√pac, to cook	pacati, he cooks	pacita, cooked
√cal, to shake	calati, he shakes	calita, shaken
√gah, to take	ga.nhaati, he takes	gahita, taken
√kapp, to arrange	kappeti, he arranges	kappita, arranged
√khaad, to eat	khaadati, he eats	khadita, eaten
√likh, to write	likhati, he writes	likhita, written
√ma.n.d, to adorn	ma.n.deti, he adorns	ma.n.dita, adorned
√gil, to swallow	gilati, he swallows	gilita, swallowed
√kath, to tell	katheti, he tells	kathita, told

453. (iii) ta assimilated to the root

The suffix ta assimilates, or is assimilated to the last consonant of the root:

Root	Passive Perfect Participle	Rules of Assimilation
√bhuj, to eat	bhutta, eaten	(59, a)
√muc, to free	mutta, freed	(59, b)
√is, to wish	i.t.tha, wished	(59, ii-iii)
√kas, to plough	ka.t.tha, ploughed	(92)
√.das, to bite	da.t.tha, bitten	(92)
√dam, to tame	danta, tamed	(67)
√kam, to proceed	kanta, proceeded, gone	(67)
√rudh, to obstruct	ruddha, obstructed	(63)
√budh, to know	buddha, known	(63)
√labh, to obtain	laddha, obtained	(63, Remark.)
√majj, to polish	ma.t.tha (also ma.t.ta), polished	(59, i)
√muh, to err	mu.lha (also muddha), erred	(100, 101, 102)
√ruh, to ascend	ruu.lha, ascended	(100, 101, 102)
√lih, to lick	li.lha, licked	(100, 101, 102)
√jhas, to hurt	jhatta, hurt	(94)
√pat, to fall	patta, fallen	(62)
√tap, to burn	tatta, burned	(64, i)
√duh, to milk	duddha, milked	(100)

454. (a) Roots in r generally drop the r before ta.

Examples

Root	Passive Perfect Participle	Rules of Assimilation
√kar, to make	kata, made	(81)
√sar, to remember	sata, remembered	(81)
√mar, to die	mata, dead	(81)

455. (b) Roots in n generally drop final n before ta.

Examples

Root	Passive Perfect Participle
√man, to think	mata, thought
√khan, or √kha.n, to dig	khata (also: khaata, from a collateral form khaa=khan), dug
√han, to kill	hata, killed

456. (c) Sometimes final .m is also dropped.

Examples

√gam, to go	gata, gone
√ram, to sport	rata, amused, delighted

457. (d) In a few cases, final r lingualizes the following t, as:

√har, to seize, carry

ha.ta, seized, carried

458. Passive Perfect Participle which take na

The suffix na is much less common than ta, and like it:

1. It may be joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i, or
2. it may be joined directly to roots ending in a vowel;
3. when added directly to roots ending in a consonant, that consonant is assimilated to n of na, and sometimes the n of na is assimilated to the final consonant.

459. Examples of (i)

Root	Passive Perfect Participle	Rules of Assimilation
√sad, to settle	sinna, settled	(69, ii, iii)

Root	Passive Perfect Participle	Rules of Assimilation
√chid, to cut	chinna, cut	(69, ii, iii)
√chad, to cover	channa, covered	(69, ii, iii)
√daa, to give	dinna, given	(69, ii, iii)

In this last example, aa of the root has been dropped, and the n doubled to compensate for its loss; the form datta given (=daa+ta, with the t doubled to make for the shortening of aa), is found sometimes.

√tar, to cross	ti.n.na, crossed	(83)
√car, to wander	ci.n.na, wandered	(83)
√kir, to scatter	ki.n.na, scattered	(83)

460. Examples of (iii)

Root	Passive Perfect Participle	Rules of Assimilation
√bhaj, to break	bhagga, broken	(57)
√vij, to be agitated	vigga, agitated	(57)

In these two examples, final j of the root, having become, against the usual phonetic laws g, the n of suffix na, is assimilated to it by rule 57 (426, Remark).

√lag, to adhere

lagga, adhered

(57)

461. Examples of (ii)

Root	Passive Perfect Participle
√lii, to cling to	liina, clung to
√luu, to cut, reap	luuna, reaped, cut
√khi, to decay, cease	khiina, decayed (final i is lengthened)
√gilaa (glaa, 113), to be ill	gilaana, ill
√haa, to be weak, low	hiina, low, wasted, inferior

In the last example, radical aa is replaced by ii.

462. A few Passive Perfect Participles are irregular, such as:

• jhaama, burnt, from √jhaa, to burn;
• phulla, expanded, split, from √phal, to expand, split;

but these are, properly speaking, derivative adjectives used as participles.

463. Sometimes two forms of the Passive Perfect Participles for the same root are met with:

Root	Passive Perfect Participle
√lag, to adhere	lagga and lagita
√gam, to go	gata and gamita
√daa, to give	dinna and datta
√kas, to plough	ka.t.tha and kasita

464. The participles in ta and na are declined like purisa, ka~n~naa and ruupa.m.

Perfect Participle Active

465. The Perfect Participle Active (P.P.A.), is formed by adding vaa to the Passive Perfect Participle (P.P.P.).

Examples

Root	P.P.P.	P.P.A.
√pac, to cook	pacita, cooked	pacitavaa, having cooked
√bhuj, to eat	bhutta, eaten	bhuttavaa, having eaten
√kar, to do	kata, made	katavaa, having made

Future Passive Participle

466. This participle, also called participle of necessity, potential participle and gerundive, is formed by adding to the root the suffixes: tabba, ya, aniiya and iiya.

Tabba

467. This suffix is the most common. It is added:

1. Directly to roots ending in a vowel.
2. To roots ending in a consonant, it may be joined by means of connecting vowel i.
3. When added directly without connecting vowel i to roots ending in a consonant, initial t of tabba is assimilated to or assimilates the last consonant of the root in exactly the same manner as in the formation of the Passive Perfect Participle.

Examples of (i)

Root	Future Passive Participle
√haa, to abandon	haatabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be abandoned
√daa, to give	daatabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be given
√pa, to drink	paatabba, fit to be, that ought to be drunk

Examples of (ii)

Root	Future Passive Participle
√pac, to cook	pacitabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be cooked
√khan, to dig	khanitabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be dug
√pucch, to ask	pucchitabba, fit to be, that ought to be, that must be asked

Examples of (iii)

Root	Future Passive Participle
√gam, to go	gantabba, fit, etc., to be gone to (67)
√kar, to do	kattabba (80); kaatabba (82), fit to be done, etc.
√labh, to receive	laddhabba, fit, etc., to be received (63, Remark)

Ya

468. The initial y becomes assimilated to the last consonant of the root according to the usual rules of assimilation (79). Sometimes the radical vowel is strengthened.

Examples

Root	Future Passive Participle	Rules of assimilation
√gam, to go	gamma, fit, proper, etc, to be gone to	(71, i)
√sak, to be able	sakka, able to be done	(71)
√khaad, to eat, chew	khajja, that can be chewed	(71, vi)
√vaj, to avoid	vajja, that ought to be avoided	(71, 74)
√bhuu, to be	bhabba, that ought to be, proper, possible	(77)

In this last example, the radical vowel uu has been strengthened before ya: bhuu + ya = bhav + ya = bhavya = bhabba.

Root	Future Passive Participle	Rules of assimilation
√labh, to obtain	labbha, fit, worthy to be obtained	(71)
√bhuj, to eat	bhojja, to be eaten, eatables, food	(71)
√bhid, to break	bhijja, to be broken	(71, vi)
√lih, to lick, sip	leyya, to be licked, sipped	(98, Remark)
√has, to laugh	hassa, fit to be laughed at	(76)
√gah, to take	gayha, that can be taken, seized	(78, iii)

(a) ya is, in a few cases, cases, joined to the root by means of vowel i. For instance:

√kar, to do, make, we have:

• kaariya, that ought to be, or can be done, with lengthening of radical a.
• kayya, that ought, etc., to be done, with assimilation of final r to ya.
• kayiira, that ought, etc, with metathesis (iii).

√bhar, to support:

• bhaariya, that ought to be maintained, with lengthening of radical a.

(b) After roots ending in aa long initial y of ya is doubled and final a of the root is changed to e.

Root	Future Passive Participle
√haa, to abandon	heyya, to be abandoned, that ought to be abandoned
√paa, to drink	peyya, that can, may, or ought to be drunk
√daa, to give	deyya, to be given, that ought to or can be given

(c) ya is likewise doubled after roots in i, ii and the i or ii is changed to e.

Root	Future Passive Participle
√nii, to lead	neyya, to be led, that ought to be led
√ji, to conquer	jeyya, to be conquered, that can be conquered

Aniiya

469. The suffix aniiya is added to the root or to the base.

Root	Future Passive Participle
√pac, to cook	pacaniiya, fit to be cooked
√puj, to honour	pujaniiya, worthy to be honoured
√kar, to do, make	kara.niiya, that ought to be made or done
(Observe that the n is lingualised through the influence of radical r, 83)
√bhuu, to be (base: bhava)	bhavaniiya, that ought to be

The Gerund

470. The gerund is formed by means of suffixes: tvaa, tvaana, tuuna, ya, and tya. It is indeclinable and partakes of the nature of a participle.

In Paali, ya is added indiscriminately to simple roots or to roots compounded with prefixes; but, as in Sanskrit (in which it is never used after simple roots), it is much more common after compound verbs.

Tvaa, Tvaana, Tuuna

471. The suffix tvaa may be:

1. Joined to the root by means of connecting vowel i.
2. The initial t of the suffix is, in a few cases assimilated to the last consonant of the root.
3. The vowel of the root is gu.nated.
4. Sometimes the last consonant of the root is dropped before suffixes tvaa, tvaana and tuuna.
5. The final long vowel of a root is shortened before these suffixes.
6. The suffixes are added to the special base as well as to the root.

Examples

Root	Gerund
√pac, to cook	pacitvaa, having cooked (i)
√khaad, to eat	khaaditvaa having eaten (i)
√labh, to obtain	laddhaa, obtained (ii) (63, Remark)
	labhitvaa, having obtained (i)
√nii, to lead	netvaa, having led (iii)
√chid, to cut	chetvaa, having cut (iii, iv)
√kar, to make	katvaa, having made (iv)
√.thaa, to stand, remain	.thitvaa, having stood, remained (i)
√bhii, to fear	bhitvaa, having feared, fearing (v)
√daa, to give	datvaa, having given (v)
√bhuj, to eat	bhutvaa, having eaten (iv)
√aap-pa = paap, to get	patvaa, having got (iv, v)
√ji, to conquer	jitvaa, jetvaa, having conquered (iii)

Ya, Tya

472.

1. ya is used mostly with roots compounded with prefixes.
2. In a few cases, it is used with simple roots.
3. tya is regularly changed cca.
4. ya is added directly to roots ending in long aa.
5. ya may be added to the special base.
6. ya is assimilated to the last consonant of the root.
7. ya may be joined to the root or to the base by means of i.

Examples

Root	Gerund
√sic, to sprinkle	nisi~nciya, having besprinkled (i, vii)
√jaa, to know	vijaaniya, having known, discerned (i, v, vii)
√ikkh, to see	samekkhiya, having reflected (i, vii)
√cint, to think	cintiya, having thought (ii, vii)
√bhuj, to eat	bhu~njiya, having eaten (v, ii, vii)
√daa, to give	aadaaya, having given (i, iv)
√haa, to abandon	vihaaya, having abandoned (i, iv)
√~naa, to know	abhi~n~naaaya, having known (i, iv)
√gah, to take	gayha, having taken (ii, iii)
√gam, to go	gamma, having gone (vi; 71, ii)
√vis, to enter	pavissa, having entered (vi, i)
√sad, to sit down	nisajja, having sat (vi, 71, 74)
√sad, to sit down	nisiidiya, having sat (i, vii, v) (See 459. Remark)
√kam, to tread	akkamma, having trodden (vi, 71, 33, 35)
√i, to go	pa + i + tya = pecca, having gone, departed (21, i; 74, iv)
√i, to go	abhi + sam + aa + i + tya = abbisamecca, having comprehended (21, i)
√han, to strike	aa + han + tya = aahacca, having struck; final n being dropped before initial t (n, dropped before t)
√han, to strike	upa + han + tya = upahacca, having vexed (See last remark)
√han, to strike	u + han + tya = uhacca, having destroyed (See last remark)
√i, to go	pa.ti + i + tya = pa.ticca, following upon, from
√har, to take away	aa + har + tya = aahacca, having reached, attained (81)

This last should not be confounded with gerund, from √han, given above.

The Infinitive

473. The Infinitive is generally formed by means of suffix tu.m.

474. The suffixes tave, tuye and taaye are also met with, but seldom.

475. Tu.m, like the suffix of the Passive Perfect Participle (450) may be:

1. joined to the root or to the base by vowel i.
2. to the roots in aa, it is added directly.
3. roots ending in i, ii, change final i, ii to e; and roots in u, uu, change u, uu to o.
4. initial t of tu.m is assimilated to the last consonant of the root; the last consonant may also be assimilated to t.
5. tu.m is also added to the special base.

Examples

Root	Infinitive
√pac, to cook	pacitu.m, to cook (i)
√khaad, to eat	khaaditu.m, to eat (i)
√thar, to spread	tharitu.m, to spread (i)
√daa, to give	daatu.m (ii)
√.thaa, to stand	.thaatu.m (ii)
√yaa, to go	yaatu.m (ii)
√ji, to conquer	jetu.m (iii)
√nii, to lead	netu.m (iii)
√su, to hear	sotu.m (iii)
√labh, to obtain	laddhu.m, to obtain (iv; 63, remark)
√bhuj, to eat	bhottu.m, to eat (iii, iv, 59a)
√aap, to obtain, + pa	pattu.m, to obtain (iv; 64, i)
√gam, to go	gantu.m, to go (iv, 67)
√i, to go	etu.m, to go (iii)
√su, to hear	su.nitu.m, to hear (v)
√budh, to know	bodhitu.m, to know (i, iii)
√budh, to know	bujjhitu.m, to know (i, v)
√sii, to lie down	setu.m, to lie down (iii)
√sii, to lie down	sayitu.m (v)
√jaa, to know	jaanitu.m, to know (v)
√chid, to cut	chinditu.m, to cut (v)
√chid, to cut	chettu.m, to cut (iii, iv; 62, vi)

Tave, Tuye, Taaye

476. These suffixes are Vedic and seldom used in Paali; tave, however, is more frequently met with than the other two.

Root	Infinitive
√nii, to lead	nitave, to lead
√haa, to abandon	vi + pa + haa + tave = vippahaatave, to abandon
√nam, to bend	ud + nam + e + tave = unnametave, to ascend, rise
√dhaa, to hold	ni + base:dhe (391) + tave = nidhetave, to hide, bury
√mar, to die	marituye, to die, joined by vowel i
√ga.n, to count	ga.netuye, to count, added to the base ga.ne
√dis, to see	dakkhitaaye, to see (404)

477. The student will have remarked that several forms for the same root are often met with.

(B) Derivative or Secondary Conjugation

478. The Derivative Conjugation includes:

1. the Passive;
2. the Causative;
3. the Denominative;
4. the Desiderative and,
5. the Intensive.

479. It is called the derivative conjugation because the above named five kinds of verbs are derived from the simple root with a well-defined modification of the sense of the root itself.

480. Except for the Causative, derivative verbs are not conjugated in all the tenses and in all voices.

The Passive

481. The Passive conjugation is formed by adding the suffix ya to the root.

482. The suffix ya having been added and the Passive base obtained, the personal endings of either the active voice or of the reflective voice are added to the base.

483. Ya is affixed to the root in three ways:

1. Directly after roots ending in a vowel.
2. To roots in a double consonant, ya is joined by means of i, this i being lengthened to ii. It is also joined by means of i when a root ends in a consonant that does not generally reduplicate (s, h and r).
3. It may be added directly to roots ending in a consonant; in this case the y of ya becomes assimilated to the last consonant of the root according to the Rules of Assimilation. (70.)
4. Ya is also added to the special base by means of i, lengthened.

Examples of (i)

Root	Passive base
√daa, to give	diiya, to be given
√paa, drink	piiya, to be drunk
√dha, to hold	dhiiya, to be held
√ji, to conquer	jiiya, to be conquered
√ci, to heap	ciiya, to be heaped up
√ku, to sing	kuuya, to be sung
√su, to hear	suuya, to be heard

Root	Passive base
√bhuu, to become	bhuuya, to have become
√luu, to reap	luuya, to be reaped
√nii, to lead	niiya, to be led

Root	Passive base
√nii, to lead	√niiya, or √niyya
√su, to hear	√suuya, or √suyya
√daa, to give	√diiya, or √diyya

484. To the above bases the active or reflective personal endings being added, we obtain, for instance from √ji, to conquer, base jiiya (or jiyya).

	Present
	Active		Reflective
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	jiiyaami, I am conquered	jiiyaama, we are conquered	jiiye, I am conquered	jiiyaamhe, we are conquered
2.	jiiyasi, thou art conquered	jiiyatha, you are conquered	jiiyase, thou art conquered	jiiyavhe, you are conquered
3.	jiiyati, he is conquered	jiiyanti, they are conquered	jiiyate, he is conquered	jiiyante, they are conquered

Optative: (1) jiiyeyya.m, jiiyeyyaami; (2) jiiyetho, jiiyeyyaasi; (3) jiiyetha, jiiyeyya, etc., etc.

Imperative: (1) jiiye, jiiyaami; (2) jiiyassu, jiiyaahi; (3)jiiyata.m, jiiyatu.

Examples of (ii)

Root	Passive base
√pucch, to ask	pucchiiya, to be asked
√has, to laugh	hasiiya, to be laughed at
√vas, to live	vasiiya, to be lived upon
√kar, to make	kariiya, to be made
√sar, to remember	sariiya, to be remembered
√mah, to honour	mahiiya, to be honoured

Examples of (iii)

Root	Passive base
√labh, to obtain	labbha, to be obtained (70, 71)
√pac, to cook	pacca, to be cooked (70, 71)
√bha.n, to speak	bha~n~na, to be spoken (70, 71)
√khaad, to eat	khajja, to be eaten (70, 71, 34)
√han, to kill	ha~n~na, to be killed (70, 71)
√bandh, to bind	bajjha, to be bound (70, 71, 74)

Examples of (iv)

Root	Passive base
√gam, to go	gacchiiya, to be gone to
√budh, to know	bujjhiiya, to be known
√is, to wish, desire	icchiiya, to be wished for

485. Long ii, before ya of the Passive, is sometimes found shortened, as: mahiiyati or mahiyati, to be honoured.

486. It is usual to form the Passive of roots ending in a consonant preceded by long aa, by means of ii:

• √yac, to beg = yaaciiyati;
• √aj, to drive + prefix pa = paaj, to drive = paajiiyati, to be driven.

487. Ya may be added directly after some roots ending a consonant without assimilation taking place and without the insertion of connecting vowel ii; as:

• √lup, to cut, elide = lupya + ti = lupyati, to be elided, cut off.
• √gam, to go = gamya + ti = gamyati, to be gone to.

488. The Passive may assume several forms from the same root:

• √kar, to do, make, gives Passive: kariiyati, kariyyati, kayirati (with metathesis), kayyati (with asssimilation of r, 80).
• √gam, to go, gives: gamiiyati, gacchiiyati, gamyati.
• √gah, to take, gives: gayhati (metathesis); gheppati, quite an anomalous form.
• √haa, to abandon: haayati, hiyati.

489. Anomalous form of the Passive.

• √vah, to carry; Passive base = vuyh: vuyhaami, vuyhasi, vuyhati, vuyhe, vuyhase, vuyhate, etc.
• √vas, to live; Passive base = vuss: vussaami, vussasi, vussati, etc.
• √yaj, to sacrifice; Passive base = ijj, to be sacrificed: ijjaami, ijjasi, ijjati, etc.
• √vac, to speak; Passive base = ucc: uccaami, uccasi, uccati, etc.
• √vac, to speak; Passive base = vucc: vuccaami, vuccasi, vuccati, etc.

490. Final s of a root, which is not usually susceptible of reduplication is, however, sometimes found reduplicated as:

• √dis, to see, becomes; dissati, to be seen.
• √nas, to destroy; nassati, to be destroyed.

Causative Verbs

491. Causal or Causative verbs are formed by adding to the root the suffixes:

1. aya, which is often contracted to e.
2. aapaya, which likewise may be contracted to aape.

492.

1. The radical vowel of the root is gu.nated or strengthened before these suffixes, if followed by one consonant only.
2. It remains unchanged when it is followed by two consonants.
3. In some cases, radical a is not lengthened although followed by a single consonant.
4. Roots in i, ii and u, uu form their causal from the special base.
5. Other verbs, too, may form the causal from the special base.
6. Some roots in a take aape, aapaya.

Examples

Root	Causative base
√pac, to cook	paace, paacaya, paacaape, paacaapaya, to cause to cook (i)
√kar, to do	kaare, kaaraya, kaaraape, kaaraapaya, to cause to do (i)
√gah, to take	gaahe, gaahaya, gaahaape, gaahaapaya, to cause to take (i)
√mar, to kill	maare, maaraya, maaraape, maaraapaya, to cause to kill (i)
√sam, to be appeased	same, samaya, samaape, samaapaya, to cause to be appeased (iii)
√gam, to go	game, gamaya, to cause to go, (iii); we find also: gaame
√chid, to cut	chede, chedaya, chedaape, chedaapaya, to cause to cut (i)
√bhuj, to eat	bhoje, bhojaya, bhojaape, bhojaapaya, to cause to eat (i)
√rudh, to hinder	rodhe, rodhaya, rodhaape, rodhaapaya, to cause to hinder (i)
√bhid, to break	bhede, bhedaya, bhedaape, bhedaapaya, to cause to break (i)
√su, to hear	saave, saavaya, saavaape, saavaapaya, to cause to hear (iv)
√bhuu, to be	bhaave, bhaavaya, etc (iv)
√sii, to lie down	saaye, saayaya, sayaape, sayaapaya, to cause to lie down (iv, iii)
√nii, to lead	naayaya, nayaape, nayaapaya, to cause to lead (iv, iii)
√pucch, to ask	pucchaape, pucchaapaya, to cause to ask (ii)
√dhaa, to place	pidhaape, pidhaapaya, to cause to shut (vi). with prefix pi, pidahaape, pidahaapaya, to cause to shut (v, ii)
√daa, to give	daape, daapaya, to cause to give
√.thaa, to stand	.thape, .thapaya, to place (vi, with a shortened)

Double Causal

493. There is a double causal formed by adding aapaape to the root.

Examples

Root	Simple Causal	Double Causal
√pac, to cook	paace, paacaape, etc.	paacaapaape, paacaapaapaya
√chid, to cut	chede, chedaape, etc.	chedaapaape, chedaapaapaya
√bhuj, to eat	bhoje, bhojaape, etc.	bhojaapaape, bhojaapaapaya

494. The causative verbs are declined like the verbs in i, ii of the 1st conjugation, 3rd division (393, 385) and like the verbs of the 7th conjugation. (379)

Examples

√pac, to cook, causative base: paace, paacaya, paacaape, paacaapaya, to cause to cook.

Present

	Singular	Plural
1.	paacemi, paacayaami, paacaapemi, paacaapayaami, I cause to cook	paacema, paacayaama, paacaapema, paacaapayaama, we cause to cook
2.	paacesi, paacayasi, paacaapesi, paacaapayasi, thou causest to cook	paacetha, paacayatha, paacaapetha, paacaapayatha, you cause to cook
3.	paaceti, paacayati, paacaapeti, paacaapayati, he causes to cook	paacenti, paacayanti, paacaapenti, paacaapayanti, they cause to cook

Optative

	Singular	Plural
1.	paaceyyaami, paacayeyyaami, paacaapeyyaami, paacaapayeyyaami, I should cause, etc.	paaceyyaama, paacayeyyaama, paacaapeyyaama, paacaapayeyyaama, we should cause, etc.
2.	paaceyyaasi, paacayeyyaasi, paacaapeyyaasi, paacaapayeyyaasi, thou shouldst cause, etc.	paaceyyaatha paacayeyyaatha, paacaapeyyaatha, paacaapayeyyaatha, you should cause, etc.
3.	paaceyya, paacayeyya, paacaapeyya, paacaapayeyya, he should cause, etc.	paaceyyu.m, paacayeyyu.m, paacaapeyyu.m, paacaapayeyyu.m, they should cause, etc.

And so on for the other tenses.

Causal Passive

495. The passive of a causal verb is formed by joining the suffix ya of the Passive to the Causative base, by means of i, lengthened to ii, final vowel e of the Causative base having been dropped first. The Causal Passive may be translated by "caused to... , made to do..." the action expressed by the root.

Examples

Roots	Simple verb	Causal	Causal Passive
√pac, to cook	pacati	paaceti	paaciiyati, to be caused to cook
√bhuj, to eat	bhu~njati	bhojeti	bhojiiyati, to be caused to eat
√kar, to do	karoti	kaareti	kaariiyati, to be caused to do

496. Some verbs, although in the Causative, have merely a transitive sense as:

• √car, to go, Causative: caareti, to cause to go = to administer (an estate).
• √bhuu, to be, Causative: bhaaveti, to cause to = to cultivate, practise.

497. Verbs of the 7th conjugation form their causal by adding aape or aapaya to the base, the final vowel of the base having first been dropped.

Roots	Base	Simple verb	Causal
√cur, to steal	core	coreti, corayati	coraapeti, coraapayati
√kath, to tell	kathe	katheti, kathayati	kathaapeti, kathaapayati
√tim, to wet	teme	temeti, temayati	temaapeti, temaapayati

Denominative Verbs

498. So called because they are formed from a noun stem by means of certain suffixes.

499. The meaning of the Denominative Verb is susceptible of several renderings in English; it generally expresses:

1. "to act as, to be like, to wish to be like" that which is denoted by the noun.
2. "to wish for, to desire" that which is signified by the noun.
3. "to change or make into" that which is denoted by the noun.
4. "to use or make use of" that which is expressed by the noun.

500. The suffixes used to form Denominative verbal stems are:

1. aaya, aya, e
2. iiya, iya
3. a
4. aara, aala (these two rather rare)
5. aape

501. The base or stem having been obtained by means of the above suffixes, the personal endings of the tenses are added exactly as they are after other verbs.

Examples

Noun stem	Denominative verb
pabbata, a mountain	pabbataayati, to act like a mountain
macchara, avarice	macchaarayati, to be avaricious (lit. to act avariciously)
samudda, the ocean	sammuddaayati, to be or act like the ocean
nadii, river	nadiyiti, to do, act like a river
ara~n~na, forest	ara~n~niiyati, to act (in town) as in the forest
dhana, riches	dhanayati, dhanaayati, to desire riches
putta, a son	puttiiyati, to desire, or treat as a son
patta, a bowl	pattiiyati, to wish for a bowl
ciivara, monk's robe	ciivariiyati, to desire a robe
dolaa, a palankin	dolaayati, to desire a, or wish for one's own palankin
vii.naa, a lute	vii.naayati, to use the lute, to play on the lute
upakkama, diligence, plan	upakkkamaalati, to make diligence, to devise plans
ga.na, a following	ga.nayati, to wish for a following or disciples
samodhaana, a connection	samodhaaneti, to connect, join
saarajja, modesty	saarajjati, to be shy, nervous shyness
ta.nhaa, craving	ta.nhaayati, ta.nhiiyati, to crave
metta.m, love	mettaayati, to love
karu.na, mercy, pity	karu.naayati, to pity
sukha, happiness	sukhaapeti, to make happy
dukkha, misery	dukkhaapeti, to make miserable
u.nha, heat	u.nhaapeti, to heat, warm
ja.taa, matted hair, tangled branches	vija.taayati, disentangle, comb out
pariyosaana, end	paariyosaanati, to end, to cease

502. Denominatives can also be formed from the stems of adjectives and adverbs, as:

Stem	Denominative verb
da.lha, firm, strong	da.lhaayati, to make firm, strong
santa.m, being good	santarati, to act well, or handsomely
a.t.ta, afflicted, hurt	a.t.tayati, to hurt, afflict

Desiderative Verbs

503. As its very name indicates, the Desiderative conjugation expresses the wish or desire to do or be that which is denoted by the simple root.

504. The Desiderative is not extensively used in Paali; however, it is frequent enough to warrant a careful perusal of the rules for its formation.

505. The suffix sa is the characteristic sign of this conjugation; another characteristic is the reduplication of the root according to the rules already given (372). The student ought first to look carefully over those rules.

Root	Desiderative base	Desiderative verb
√su, to hear	sussusa	sussusati, to desire to hear = listens (33,372-7c)
√bhuj, to eat	bubhukkha	bubhukkhati, to wish to eat (86, 372-5)
√tij, to bear	titikkha	titikkhati, to endure, be patient (86, 372-7b)
√ghas, to eat	jighaccha	jighacchati, to desire to eat (89, 372-7a)
√paa, to drink	pipaasa, pivaasa	pivaasati, to desire to drink (372-7a). (pivaasa, from the root)
√kit, to cure	cikiccha	cikicchati, to desire to cure, to treat (88; 372-2)

506. It will be remarked that the initial s of sa is mostly assimilated.

507. The bases being obtained, the personal endings are added as usual.

Intensive Verbs

508. The Intensive Verbs also called Frequentative Verbs, express the frequent repetition or the intensification of the action denoted by the simple root. The characteristic of the Intensive conjugation is the reduplication of the root according to the usual rules (372).

509. These verbs are not very frequent in Paali.

Examples

Root	Intensive verb
√lap, to talk	laalappati, laalapati, to lament
√kam, to go	ca`nkamati, to walk to and fro
√gam, to go	ja`ngamati, to go up and down
√cal, to move	ca~ncalati, to move to and fro, to tremble

The personal endings are added as usual.

Defective and Anomalous Verbs

510. √as, to be

Present System

Present

	Singular	Plural
1.	asmi, amhi, I am	asma, amha, we are
2.	asi, thou art	attha, you are
3.	atthi, he is	santi, they are

Imperative

	Singular	Plural
1.	asmi, amhi, let me be	asma, amha, let us be
2.	ahi, be thou	attha, be ye
3.	atthu, let him, her, it be	santu, let them be

Present Participle

	Active	Reflective
Masculine	santo, being	samaano, being
Feminine	santii, being	samaanaa, being
Neuter	santa.m, being	samaana.m, being

Aorist

	Singular	Plural
1.	aasi.m, I was, I have been	aasimhaa, aasimha, we were, we have been
2.	aasi, thou wast, thou hast been	aasittha, you were, you have been
3.	aasi, he was, he has been	aasu.m, aasi.msu, they were, they have been

Conditional

	Singular	Plural
1.	assa.m, if I were or should be	assaama, if we were or should be
2.	assa, if thou wert or should be	assatha, if you were or should be
3.	assa, siyaa, if he were or should be	assu, siyu.m, if they were or should be

511. √huu, to be. (huu is a contracted form of root bhuu).

Present System

Present

	Singular	Plural
1.	homi	homa
2.	hosi	hotha
3.	hoti	honti

Imperfect

	Singular	Plural
1.	ahuva, ahuva.m	ahuvamha, ahuvamhaa
2.	ahuvo	ahuvattha
3.	ahuva, ahuvaa	ahuvu

Imperative

	Singular	Plural
1.	homi	homa
2.	hohi	homa
3.	hotu	hontu

Optative

	Singular	Plural
1.	heyyaami	heyyaama
2.	heyyaasi	heyyaatha
3.	heyya	heyyu.m

Present Participle

Masculine	honto
Feminine	hontii
Neuter	honta.m

Aorist

	Singular	Plural
1.	ahosi.m, ahu.m	ahosimhaa, ahumhaa
2.	ahosi	ahosittha
3.	ahosi, ahu	ahesu.m, ahu.m

The Future has already been given (436).

Infinitive	Gerund	Future. P.P.
hotu.m	hutvaa	hotabbo

512. √kar, to do, make.

Present System

Present

The Present Active has already been given (403).

	Reflective
	Singular	Plural
1.	kubbe	kubbamhe, kurumhe
2.	kubbase, kuruse	kubbavhe, kuruvhe
3.	kubbate, kurute, kubbati	kubbante, kurunte

Optative

	Active
	Singular	Plural
1.	kare, kubbe, kareyya, kubbeyya, kayiraa, kayiraami	kareyyaama, kubbeyyaama, kayiraama
2.	kare, kubbe, kareyyaasi, kubbeyyaasi, kayiraa, kayiraasi	kareyyaatha, kubbetha, kayiraatha
3.	kare, kubbe, kareyya, kubbeyya, kayiraa	kareyya.m, kubbeyya.m, kayira.m

Imperfect

	Active		Reflective
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	akara, akara.m	akaramhaa	akari.m	akaramhase
2.	akaro	akarattha	akarase	akaravha.m
3.	akara	akaru	akarattha	akaratthu.m

The Aorist has been given (412).

Imperative

	Active		Reflective
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	karomi	karoma	kubbe	kubbaamase
2.	kuru, karohi	karotha	kurussu	kuruvho
3.	karotu, kurutu	karontu, kubbantu	kuruta.m	kubbanta.m

Future

Besides the usual Future in ssaami: karissaami, karissasi, there is another form given in (436).

Present Participle

	Active	Reflective
Masculine	kara.m, karonto	karamaano, kurumaano, karaano, kubbaano
Feminine	karontii	karamaanaa, kurumaanaa, karaanaa, kubbaanaa
Neuter	kara.m, karonta.m	karamaana.m, kurumaana.m, karaana.m, kubbaana.m

Future Passive Participle

kattabbo, kaatabbo, kaariyo, kayiro, kayyo, kara.niiyo.

Present Passive Participle

kariiyamaano, kariyyamaano, kayiiramaano, kariyamaano.

Passive Base

The passive base has several forms: kariiya, kariyya, kariya, kayira.

513. √da, to give.

The Present Optative and Imperative have already been given. (395) The student will remark that some of the tenses are formed directly on the root: the Radical Aorist, the Sigmatic Aorist, the Future and the Conditional.

	Radical Aorist		Sigmatic Aorist
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	ada.m	adamhaa	adaasi.m	adaasimhaa
2.	ado	adattha	adaasi	adaasittha
3.	ada	ada.msu, adu.m	adaasi	adaasu.m, adaasi.msu

Future

	From the base		From the root
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	dadissaami	dadissaama	dassaami	dassaama
2.	dadissasi	dadissatha	dassasi	dassatha
3.	dadissati	dadissanti	dassati	dassanti

Conditional

	Singular	Plural
1.	adassa.m	adassamhaa
2.	adasse	adassatha
3.	adassaa	adassa.msu

Participles

	Masculine Nominative Singular
Present	dada.m, dadanto
Past	dinno
Active Perfect	dinnavaa
Future	dadassa.m, dadassanto
Future Passive	daatabbo, daayo
Present Reflective	dadaamaano

Present Reflective Participle: dadaamaanaa (fem.), dadaamaana.m (neut.)

Verbal Prefixes

514. The Prefixes or Prepositions, called in Paali: Upasagga (23, Remark), are prefixed to verbs and their derivatives; they have been, on that account, called Verbal Prefixes. They generally modify the meaning of the root, or intensify it, and sometimes totally alter it; in many cases, they add but little to the original sense of the root.

515. The usual rules of sandhi apply when these prefixes are placed before verbs. When a prefix is placed before a tense with the augment a, the augment must not change its position, but remain between the prefix and the root, as: agaa + ati = accagaa (74, i), and not: aatigaa

516. These prefixes are as follows:

aa to, at, towards, near to, until, as far as, away, all round.

Examples

• √ka.d.dh, to drag, draw = aaka.d.dhati, to draw towards, to drag away.
• √kir, to pour, scatter = aakirati, to scatter all over or around, to fill.
• √cikkh, to show, tell = aacikkhati, to point out, tell to (to communicate).
• √chad, to cover = acchaadeti, to cover over or all around, to put on clothes (33, 35).

ati (before vowel = acc) beyond, across, over, past, very much, very; it expresses excess.

Examples

• √kam, to step, go = atikkamati (33), to step over to go across, go past, to escape, overcome, transgress, excel, to elapse.
• √nii, to lead = atineti, to lead over or across, to irrigate.
• √car, to act = aticarati, to act beyond, too much, in excess = to transgress.

adhi (before vowels = ajjh) over, above, on, upon, at, to in, superior to, great, it expresses sometimes superiority.

Examples

• √vas, to live = adhivasati, to live in, to inhabit.
• √gam, to go = ajjhagamaa, he approached = adhi + augment a + gamaa (Aorist).
• √bhaas, to speak = adhibhaasati, to speak to, to address.

anu after, along, according to, near to, behind, less than, in consequence of, beneath.

Examples

• √kar, to do = anukaroti, to do like, viz., to imitate, to ape.
• √kam, to go = anukkamati, to go along with, to follow.
• √dhaav, to run = anudhaavati, to run after to pursue.
• √gah, to take = anuga.nhati, to take near, beneath = to protect.

apa off, away, away from, forth: it also implies detraction, hurt, reverence.

Examples

• √ci, to notice, observe = apacaayati, to honour, respect; apaciti, reverence.
• √nii, to lead = opaneti, to lead away, viz., to take away, remove.
• √gam, to go = apagacchati, to go away.
• √man, to think = apama~n~nati, to despise.

api on, over, unto, close upon. This prefix is very seldom used; it is prefixed mostly to the roots: √dhaa, to put, set, lay, and √nah, to bind, join. It is moreover found abbreviated to pi in most instances.

Examples

• √dhaa, to put, set, lay = pidahati, to cover, close, shut. apidhana.m, pidahana.m, pidhaana.m, covering, lid, cover.
• √nah, to bind, join = pinayhati, to bind on, join on.

abhi to, unto, towards, against, in the direction of. It also expresses excess, reverence, particularity. (Before a vowel = abbh).

Examples

• √gam, to go = abhigacchati, to go towards, approach.
• √ka`nkh, to desire, abhika`nkhati = to desire particularly, to long for, yearn.
• √jal, to blaze = abhijalati, to blaze excessively, viz, fiercely.
• √vand, to salute = abhivandati, to salute reverentially.

ava down, off, away, back, aside, little, less. Implies also: disrespect, disregard.

Examples

• √jaa, to know = avajaanaati, to despise.
• √har, to take = avaharati, to take away. avahaaro, taking away.
• √khip, to throw = avakhipati, to throw down.
• √lok, luk, to look = oloketi, to look down = avaloketi.

ud (= the u of native grammarians; for the assimilation of final d to the following consonants see 58, 60, 62, 65. Before h, sometimes final d is lost and the u lengthened.) upwards, above, up, forth, out.

Examples

• √khip, to throw = ukkhipati, to throw up, get rid of; ukkhepana.m, excommunication.
• √chid, to cut = ucchindati, to cut off.
• √.thaa, to stand = u.t.thahati to stand up, rise, u.t.thaana.m, rising.
• √har, to take = uddharati (96) to draw out. uddhara.na.m, pulling out.

• √pat, to fall = uppatati, to leap up, spring up.
• √nam, to bend = unnamati, to rise up, ascend.

upa unto, to, towards, near, with, by the side of, as, like, up to, (opposed to apa), below, less.

Examples

• √ka.d.dh, to drag = upaka.d.dhati, to drag or draw towards, to draw below or down.
• √kar, to do = upakaroti, to do something towards unto; viz, to help, upakaaro, help, use; upakara.na.m, instrument (lit. doing with).
• √kam, to step, go = upakkamati, to attack, (lit. to go towards).

ni (sometimes lengthened to nii, and before a vowel = nir) out, forth, down, into, downwards, in, under.

Examples

• √kam, to go = nikkhamati, to go out, to depart.
• √dhaa, to place = nidahati or nidheti, to deposit, hide.
• √har, to take = niiharati, to take out.
• √han, to strike = nihanti, to strike down.

pa onward, forward to, forth, fore, towards, with. It expresses beginning.

Examples

• √bhaa, to shine = pabhaati, to shine forth, to dawn. pabhaa, radiance.
• √bhuu, to be = pabhavati, to begin to be, viz., to spring up, to originate.
• √jal, to burn = pajjalati, to burn forth, to blaze.

pati, pa.ti against, back to, in reverse direction, back again in return, to, towards, near.

Examples

• √bhaas, to speak = pa.tibhaasati, to speak back, to reply.
• √khip, to throw = pa.tikkhipati, to refuse. pa.tikkhepo, refusing.
• √kam, to step = pa.tikkamati, to step back, to retreat.

paraa away, back, opposed to, aside, beyond.

Examples

• √kam, to go = parakkamati, to strive, put forth effort.
• √ji, to conquer = paraajeti, to overcome.

pari around, all around, about, all about, all over. Expresses completeness, etc.

Examples

• √car, to walk = paricarati, to walk around, viz,. to serve, honour. paricaaro, attendance; paricca, having encircled (=pari+i+tya).
• √chid, to cut = paricchindati, to cut around, to limit, mark out.
• √dhaav, to run = paridhaavati, to run about.
• √jaa, to know = parijaanaati, to know perfectly, exactly.

vi asunder, apart, away, without. Implies separation, distinctness, dispersion.

Examples

• √chid, to cut = vicchindati, to cut or break asunder, to break off, interrupt.
• √jaa, to know = vijaanaati, to know distinctly, to discern; vijaana.m, knowing.
• √kir, to scatter = vikirati, to scatter about, to spread.

sam with, along, together, fully, perfectly.

• √bhuj, to eat = sambhu~njati, to eat with.
• √vas, to live = sa.mvasati, to live together with; sa.mvaaso, living with.

517. It is important to note that the prefixes or prepositions are used, not only with verbs, but also with verbal derivatives, nouns and adjectives, as: anutiire, along the bank; adhicitta.m, high thought; abhiniilo, very black.

518. pari is often written: pali (72).

519. pari, vi and sam very often add merely an intensive force to the root.

520. After prefixes, sam, upa, paraa, pari, and the word pura, in front, √kar sometimes assumes the form: khar.

Examples

• purakkharoti, to put in front, to follow = pura + √kar
• parikkharo, surrounding = pari + √kar

521. A few adverbs are used very much in the same way as the Verbal Prefixes, but their use is restricted to a few verbs only. They are:

• aavi = in full view, in sight, in view, manifestly, visibly. It is prefixed to the verbs: bhavati (√bhuu) and karoti (√kar).
  Examples: aavibhavati, to become manifest, visible, to appear, be evident; aavikaroti, to make manifest, clear, evident; to explain, show.
• antara = among within, between, used with √dhaa, to put, place.
  Examples: antaradhaayati, to vanish, disappear, hide; antaradhaapeti, to cause to vanish or disappear.
• attha.m (adv. and noun) = home; disappearance, disappearing, setting; used with verbs of going = to set, disappear (of moon, sun and stars). Mostly used with the verbs gacchati and eti (√i), to go.
  Examples: attha`ngacchati, to disappear, to set; atthameti, to set (of the sun).
• paatu (before a vowel: patur) = forth to view, manifestly, evidently, used with bhavati and karoti.
  Examples: paatubhavati, to become manifest, evident, clear, to appear, to arise; paatubhaavo, appearance, manifestation; paatukaroti, to manifest, make clear, evident; to produce.
• pura, in front, forward, before, used almost exclusively with karoti, (520).
  Examples: purakkharoti, to put or place in front, to appoint or make a person (one's) leader, and thence: to follow, to revere.
• ala.m, fit, fit for, used with verb karoti in the sense of decorating.
  Example: ala`nkaroti, to adorn, embellish, decorate.
• tiro, out of sight; across, beyond, prefixed to roots kar and dhaa, in the sense of covering, hiding, etc.
  Examples: tirodhaapeti, to veil, to cover, put out of sight; tirodhaana.m, a covering, a veil; tirokaroti, to veil, to screen; tirokara.ni, a screen, a veil.

522. Prefixes du and su are never used with verbs, (see Chapter on Adverbs), and prefix a (an), is very seldom so used.

523. To finish this chapter on verbs, we will now give the paradigm of a verb fully conjugated: √pac, to cook (stem paca).

Present System

Present I cook, etc.

	Active voice		Reflective voice
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	pacaami	pacaama	pace	pacaamhe
2.	pacasi	pacatha	pacase	pacavhe
3.	pacati	pacanti	pacate	pacare, pacante

Imperfect I cooked, etc.

	Active voice		Reflective voice
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	apaca, apaca.m	apacamhaa, apacamha	apaci.m	apacaamhase, apacamhase
2.	apaco	apacattha	apacase	apacavha.m
3.	apaca	apacu	apacattha	apacatthu.m

Imperative Let me cook, etc.

	Active voice		Reflective voice
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	pacaami	pacaama	pace	pacaamaase
2.	pacaahi, paca	pacatha	pacassu	pacavho
3.	pacatu	pacantu	pacata.m	pacanta.m

Optative I should, would, could, can, etc., cook.

	Active voice		Reflective voice
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	paceyyaami, pace	paceyyaama	paceyya.m	paceyyaamhe
2.	paceyyaasi, pace	paceyyaatha	pacetho	paceyyavho
3.	paceyya, pace	paceyyu.m	pacetha	pacera.m

Present Participle

	Active voice	Reflective voice
Masculine	paca.m, pacanto	pacamaano, pacaano
Feminine	pacatii, pacantii	pacamaanaa, pacaanaa
Neuter	paca.m, pacanta.m	pacamaana.m, pacaana.m

Aorist System

(Stem pac)

Aorist I cooked, or, I have cooked, etc.

	Active voice		Reflective voice
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	apaci.m	apacimhaa	apaca	apacimhe
2.	apaci	apacittha	apacise	apacivha.m
3.	apaci, apacii	apacu.m, apaci.msu	apacaa, apacuu	apacu.m, apaci.msu

Perfect System

(Stem: papac)

Perfect I cooked, etc.

	Active voice		Reflective voice
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	papaca	papacimha	papaci	papacimhe
2.	papace	papacittha	papacittho	papacivho
3.	papaca	papacu	papacittha	papacire

Perfect Participle Having cooked.

	Active voice	Reflective voice
Masculine	pacitavaa, pacitavanto, pacitaavii	pacitavaa, pacitavanto, pacitaavii
Feminine	pacitavatii, pacitavantii, pacitaavinii	pacitavatii, pacitavantii, pacitaavinii
Neuter	pacitava.m, pacitavanta.m, pacitaavi	pacitava.m, pacitavanta.m, pacitaavi

Future System

(Stem: pacissa)

Future I shall cook, etc.

	Active voice		Reflective voice
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	pacissaami	pacissaama	pacissa.m	pacissaamhe
2.	pacissasi	pacissatha	pacissase	pacissavhe
3.	pacissati	pacissanti	pacissate	pacissante

Conditional If I could cook, etc.

	Active voice		Reflective voice
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	apacissa.m	apacissamhaa	apacissa.m	apacissaamhase
2.	apacisse	apacissatha	apacissase	apacissavhe
3.	apacissaa	apacissa.msu	apacissatha	apacissi.msu

Future Participle

	Active voice	Reflective voice
Masculine	pacissa.m, pacissanto	pacissamaano, pacissaano
Feminine	pacissatii, pacissantii	pacissamaanaa, pacissaanaa
Neuter	pacissa.m, pacissanta.m	pacissamaana.m, pacissaana.m

Infinitive: pacitu.m.

Gerund: pacitvaa, pacitvaana, pacituuna, paciya.

Future P.P.: pacitabba, pacaniiya.

P.P.P.: pacita.

524. A paradigm of √cur, to steal. Base coraya or core.

Present System

Active voice

	First form (base: coraya)		Second form (base: core)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	corayaami	corayaama	coremi	corema
2.	corayasi	corayatha	coresi	coretha
3.	corayati	corayanti	coreti	corenti

Imperfect (from base coraya only)

	Singular	Plural
1.	acoraya, acoraya.m	acorayamhaa, acorayamha
2.	acorayo	acorayattha
3.	acoraya	acorayu

Imperative

	First form (base: coraya)		Second form (base: core)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	corayaami	corayaama	coremi	corema
2.	corayaahi	corayatha	corehi	coretha
3.	corayatu	corayantu	coretu	corentu

Optative

	First form (base: coraya)		Second form (base: core)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	corayeyyaami	corayeyyaama	coreyyaami	coreyyaama
2.	corayeyyaasi	corayeyyaatha	coreyyaasi	coreyyaatha
3.	corayeyya, coraye	corayeyyu.m	coreyya	coreyyu.m

Present Participle

	First form (base: coraya)	Second form (base: core)
Masculine	coraya.m, corayanto	corento
Feminine	corayatii, corayantii	corentii
Neuter	coraya.m, corayanta.m	corenta.m

Aorist System

Aorist

	First form (base: coraya)		Second form (base: core)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	corayi.m	corayimhaa, corayimha	coresi.m	coresimhaa, coresimha
2.	corayi	corayittha	coresi	coresittha
3.	corayi	corayu.m, corayi.msu	coresi	coresu.m, coresi.msu

Perfect System

(The Perfect Tense of these verbs is not generally met with but it would be: cucora, cucore, cucorimha, etc).

Perfect Participle Active

	First form (base: coraya)	Second form (base: core)
Masculine	corayitavaa, corayitavanto, corayitaavii	coritavaa, coritavanto, coritaavii
Feminine	corayitavatii, corayitavantii, corayitaavinii	coritavatii, coritavantii, coritaavinii
Neuter	corayitava.m, corayitavanta.m, corayitaavi	coritava.m, coritavanta.m, coritaavi

Future System

Future

	First form (base: coraya)		Second form (base: core)
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	corayissaami	corayissaama	coressaami	coressaama
2.	corayissasi	corayissatha	coressasi	coressatha
3.	corayissati	corayissanti	coressati	coressanti

Conditional

	First form (base: coraya)	Second form (base: core)
1.	acorayissa.m	acorayissamhaa
2.	acorayisse	acorayissatha
3.	acorayissaa	acorayissa.msu

Future Participle Active

	First form (base: coraya)	Second form (base: core)
Masculine	corayissa.m, corayissanto	coressa.m, coressanto
Feminine	corayissatii, corayissantii	coressatii, coressantii
Neuter	corayissa.m, corayissanta.m	coressa.m, coressanta.m

Present Participle Reflective

Masculine	corayamaano, corayaano
Feminine	corayamaanaa, corayaanaa
Neuter	corayamaana.m, corayaana.m

Infinitive: corayitu.m, coretu.m.

Gerund: corayitvaa, coretvaa.

P.P.F.: corayitabbo, coretabbo.

P.P.P.: corito, coritaa, corita.m.

525. The Reflective Voice presents no difficulty; it is generally formed on the base in aya:

Reflective

	Present		Imperfect
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1.	coraye	corayaamhe	acoraya.m	acorayaamhase
2.	corayase	corayavhe	acorayase	acorayavha.m
3.	corayate	corayante	acorayattha	acorayatthu.m

526. The Passive Voice is formed in the usual way by joining ya to the base by means of vowel i lengthened to ii, the final vowel of the base being dropped before ii.

Passive Voice

	Present
	Singular	Plural
1.	coriiyaami, I am robbed.	coriiyamaa, we are robbed.
2.	coriiyasi, thou art robbed.	coriiyatha, you are robbed.
3.	coriiyati, he is robbed.	coriiyanti, they are robbed.

And so on for the other tenses.

527. The Causal and the Denominative Verbs are conjugated exactly like coreti.

528. The following paradigm will familiarize the student with the changes which take place in the principal forms of the verb:

Root	Special base	Active	Reflective	Passive	Causal	Causal Passive
√pac, to cook	paca	pacati	pacate	paccate, paccati	paaceti, paacaapeti, paacayati, paacaapayati	paaciyati, paacaapiyati
√daa, to give	dadaa	dadaati	dadate	diyate, diyati	daapati, daapaapeti	daapiyati
√nii, to lead	ne, naya	neti, nayati	nayate	niyate, niyati, niyyati	naayayati, nayaapeti, nayaapayati	nayaapiyati
√han, to kill	hana	hanati, hanti	hanate	ha~n~nate, ha~n~nati	haneti, hanaapeti, hanayati, hanaapayati	hanaapiyati, hanayiyati
√khaad, to eat	khaada	khaadati	khaadate	khaajjate, khaajjati	khaadeti, khaadayati, khaadaapeti, khaadaapayati	khaadapiyati, khaadaapiyati
√lu, to cut	lunaa	lunaati	lunate	luuyate, luuyati	laaveti, laavayati	laaviyati
√bhuu, to be	bhava	bhavati	bhavate	bhuuyate, bhuuyati	bhaaveti, bhaavayati, bhaavaapeti, bhaavaapayati	bhaaviyati
√labh, to get	labha	labhati	labhate	labbhate, labbhati	labheti, labhayati, labhaapeti, labhaapayati	labhaapiyati
√su, to hear	su.naa, su.no	su.naati, su.noti	su.nate	suuyate, suuyati	saaveti, su.napeti	saaviyati